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Does Grass Fed Beef Have Amoega 3

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  • Journal List
  • Nutr J
  • v.ix; 2010
  • PMC2846864

A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beefiness

Cynthia A Daley

1Higher of Agriculture, California Land Academy, Chico, CA, USA

Amber Abbott

oneCollege of Agriculture, California State University, Chico, CA, USA

Patrick S Doyle

iHigher of Agriculture, California Country University, Chico, CA, Usa

Glenn A Nader

2University of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, United states of america

Stephanie Larson

2University of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, U.s.a.

Received 2009 Jul 29; Accepted 2010 Mar ten.

Abstract

Growing consumer interest in grass-fed beef products has raised a number of questions with regard to the perceived differences in nutritional quality between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle. Enquiry spanning three decades suggests that grass-based diets can significantly better the fat acid (FA) composition and antioxidant content of beef, admitting with variable impacts on overall palatability. Grass-based diets have been shown to raise full conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) (C18:ii) isomers, trans vaccenic acid (TVA) (C18:1 t11), a precursor to CLA, and omega-iii (due north-3) FAs on a m/k fat basis. While the overall concentration of total SFAs is non different between feeding regimens, grass-finished beefiness tends toward a higher proportion of cholesterol neutral stearic FA (C18:0), and less cholesterol-elevating SFAs such equally myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0) FAs. Several studies suggest that grass-based diets elevate precursors for Vitamin A and E, besides as cancer fighting antioxidants such as glutathione (GT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Fatty conscious consumers will also prefer the overall lower fat content of a grass-fed beef product. All the same, consumers should exist aware that the differences in FA content volition also give grass-fed beef a distinct grass flavor and unique cooking qualities that should exist considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. In improver, the fatty from grass-finished beef may have a yellow advent from the elevated carotenoid content (precursor to Vitamin A). It is also noted that grain-fed beef consumers may attain similar intakes of both n-3 and CLA through the consumption of higher fat grain-fed portions.

Review Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fatty acid contour in grass-fed beef

three. Impact of grass-finishing on omega-3 fatty acids

four. Touch on of grass-finishing on conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-vaccenic acid (TVA)

five. Bear upon of grass-finishing on β-carotenes/carotenoids

half dozen. Touch of grass-finishing on α-tocopherol

vii. Impact of grass-finishing on GT & SOD activeness

8. Touch of grass-finishing on flavor and palatability

9. Conclusion

10. References

Introduction

In that location is considerable back up among the nutritional communities for the diet-heart (lipid) hypothesis, the idea that an imbalance of dietary cholesterol and fats are the master crusade of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular affliction (CVD) [ane]. Wellness professionals earth-wide recommend a reduction in the overall consumption of SFAs, trans-fatty acids (TAs) and cholesterol, while emphasizing the need to increase intake of north-3 polyunsaturated fats [1,2]. Such wide sweeping nutritional recommendations with regard to fat consumption are largely due to epidemiologic studies showing stiff positive correlations between intake of SFA and the incidence of CVD, a status believed to result from the concomitant ascension in serum low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol as SFA intake increases [iii,iv]. For example, it is generally accepted that for every ane% increment in free energy from SFA, LDL cholesterol levels reportedly increase past i.three to one.7 mg/dL (0.034 to 0.044 mmol/L) [five-7].

Broad promotion of this correlative data spurred an anti-SFA campaign that reduced consumption of dietary fats, including about animal proteins such as meat, dairy products and eggs over the last 3 decades [8], indicted on their relatively high SFA and cholesterol content. Even so, more than recent lipid research would suggest that not all SFAs have the same impact on serum cholesterol. For instance, lauric acrid (C12:0) and myristic acrid (C14:0), accept a greater total cholesterol raising effect than palmitic acid (C16:0), whereas stearic acrid (C18:0) has a neutral effect on the concentration of full serum cholesterol, including no apparent affect on either LDL or HDL. Lauric acrid increases total serum cholesterol, although it also decreases the ratio of total cholesterol:HDL because of a preferential increase in HDL cholesterol [5,7,nine]. Thus, the individual fatty acid profiles tend to be more than instructive than broad lipid classifications with respect to subsequent impacts on serum cholesterol, and should therefore be considered when making dietary recommendations for the prevention of CVD.

Conspicuously the lipid hypothesis has had broad sweeping impacts; non only on the way we eat, but also on the way food is produced on-farm. Indeed, changes in animal breeding and genetics have resulted in an overall leaner beef product[10]. Preliminary examination of diets containing today's leaner beefiness has shown a reduction in serum cholesterol, provided that beef consumption is limited to a 3 ounce portion devoid of all external fat [11]. O'Dea's piece of work was the first of several studies to show today'due south leaner beef products can reduce plasma LDL concentrations in both normal and hyper-cholesterolemic subjects, theoretically reducing risk of CVD [12-xv].

Beyond changes in genetics, some producers have also altered their feeding practices whereby reducing or eliminating grain from the ruminant diet, producing a production referred to as "grass-fed" or "grass-finished". Historically, most of the beef produced until the 1940's was from cattle finished on grass. During the 1950's, considerable enquiry was done to improve the efficiency of beefiness production, giving nativity to the feedlot manufacture where loftier energy grains are fed to cattle as means to subtract days on feed and meliorate marbling (intramuscular fatty: International monetary fund). In improver, U.S. consumers have grown accustomed to the taste of grain-fed beef, generally preferring the flavor and overall palatability afforded by the higher energy grain ration[16]. However, changes in consumer demand, coupled with new research on the issue of feed on nutrient content, take a number of producers returning to the pastoral arroyo to beef production despite the inherent inefficiencies.

Research spanning three decades suggests that grass-only diets can significantly modify the fatty acid limerick and improve the overall antioxidant content of beef. It is the intent of this review, to synthesize and summarize the information currently bachelor to substantiate an enhanced nutrient merits for grass-fed beef products as well as to discuss the furnishings these specific nutrients have on man health.

Review of fatty acid profiles in grass-fed beef

Red meat, regardless of feeding regimen, is nutrient dumbo and regarded every bit an important source of essential amino acids, vitamins A, B6, B12, D, East, and minerals, including fe, zinc and selenium [17,18]. Along with these important nutrients, meat consumers also ingest a number of fats which are an important source of energy and facilitate the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins including A, D, East and Thousand. According to the ADA, creature fats contribute approximately 60% of the SFA in the American diet, virtually of which are palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0). Stearic acid has been shown to have no net impact on serum cholesterol concentrations in humans[17,xix]. In addition, xxx% of the FA content in conventionally produced beef is composed of oleic acid (C18:1) [20], a monounsaturated FA (MUFA) that elicits a cholesterol-lowering effect among other healthful attributes including a reduced adventure of stroke and a significant decrease in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in susceptible populations [21].

Be that as it may, changes in finishing diets of conventional cattle can alter the lipid profile in such a way every bit to amend upon this nutritional bundle. Although there are genetic, historic period related and gender differences among the various meat producing species with respect to lipid profiles and ratios, the effect of animal nutrition is quite significant [22]. Regardless of the genetic makeup, gender, age, species or geographic location, direct contrasts between grass and grain rations consistently demonstrate significant differences in the overall fatty acid profile and antioxidant content found in the lipid depots and body tissues [22-24].

Table ​ 1 summarizes the saturated fat acid assay for a number of studies whose objectives were to contrast the lipid profiles of cattle fed either a grain or grass diets [25-31]. This tabular array is express to those studies utilizing the longissimus dorsi (loin eye), thereby standardizing the contrasts to similar cuts within the carcass and limits the comparisons to cattle between 20 and xxx months of age. Unfortunately, not all studies study data in similar units of measure out (i.e., k/thousand of fatty acid), so direct comparisons between studies are non possible.

Tabular array 1

Comparison of hateful saturated fatty acid composition (expressed as mg/1000 of fat acrid or equally a % of total lipid) between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

Fatty Acrid
Writer, publication year, breed, treatment C12:0 lauric C14:0 myristic C16:0 palmitic C18:0 stearic C20:0 arachidic Total SFA (units equally specified) Total lipid (units every bit specified)
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers grand/100 g lipid
 Grass 0.05 1.24* 18.42* 17.54* 0.25* 38.76 9.76* mg/thousand muscle
 Grain 0.06 i.84* 20.79* 14.96* 0.19* 39.27 13.03* mg/k muscle
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle 1000/100 g lipid
 Grass 0.05 2.84* 26.9 17.0* 0.13* 48.8* two.8* % of muscle
 Grain 0.07 iii.45* 26.3 xiii.two* 0.08* 45.1* four.four* % of muscle
Garcia et al., 2008, Angus X-bred steers % of total FA
 Grass na two.19 23.ane 13.1* na 38.4* two.86* %International monetary fund
 Grain na 2.44 22.1 10.8* na 35.iii* 3.85* %IMF
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers mg/100 g muscle tissue
 Grass na 56.9* 508* 272.8 na 900* 2.12%* % of muscle
 Grain na 103.7* 899* 463.3 na 1568* three.61%* % of musculus
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls % of total intramuscular fat reported equally LSM
 Grass 0.04 i.82 22.56* 17.64* na 43.91 i.51* % of muscle
 Grain 0.05 1.96 24.26* 16.80* na 44.49 2.61* % of muscle
Descalzo, et al., 2005 Crossbred Steers % of full FA
 Grass na ii.2 22.0 19.1 na 42.8 two.vii* %IMF
 Grain na 2.0 25.0 eighteen.ii na 45.5 4.7* %IMF
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers % fat acid within intramuscular fat
 Grass na i.64* 21.61* 17.74* na 49.08 1.68* % of muscle
 Grain na two.17* 24.26* 15.77* na 47.62 three.eighteen* % of muscle

*Indicates a significant difference (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each respective written report. "na" indicates that the value was non reported in the original report.

Table ​ 1 reports that grass finished cattle are typically lower in total fat as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Interestingly, there is no consistent divergence in total SFA content between these two feeding regimens. Those SFA's considered to exist more detrimental to serum cholesterol levels, i.due east., myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0), were higher in grain-fed beef as compared to grass-fed contemporaries in sixty% of the studies reviewed. Grass finished meat contains elevated concentrations of stearic acrid (C18:0), the only saturated fat acrid with a internet neutral impact on serum cholesterol. Thus, grass finished beef tends to produce a more favorable SFA composition although little is known of how grass-finished beefiness would ultimately touch serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic patients as compared to a grain-fed beef.

Like SFA intake, dietary cholesterol consumption has also become an important issue to consumers. Interestingly, beef's cholesterol content is similar to other meats (beef 73; pork 79; lamb 85; chicken 76; and turkey 83 mg/100 one thousand) [32], and can therefore be used interchangeably with white meats to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic individuals[11,33]. Studies have shown that breed, diet and sex exercise non bear upon the cholesterol concentration of bovine skeletal musculus, rather cholesterol content is highly correlated to IMF concentrations[34]. Equally IMF levels rise, so goes cholesterol concentrations per gram of tissue [35]. Because pasture raised beef is lower in overall fatty [24-27,30], peculiarly with respect to marbling or IMF [26,36], information technology would seem to follow that grass-finished beef would be lower in overall cholesterol content although the data is very limited. Garcia et al (2008) study 40.3 and 45.eight grams of cholesterol/100 grams of tissue in pastured and grain-fed steers, respectively (P < 0.001) [24].

Interestingly, grain-fed beef consistently produces higher concentrations of MUFAs as compared to grass-fed beef, which include FAs such every bit oleic acid (C18:i cis-9), the main MUFA in beefiness. A number of epidemiological studies comparison affliction rates in different countries accept suggested an inverse association between MUFA intake and mortality rates to CVD [3,21]. Withal, grass-fed beef provides a higher concentration of TVA (C18:1 t11), an important MUFA for de novo synthesis of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA: C18:ii c-9, t-11), a potent anti-carcinogen that is synthesized within the body tissues [37]. Specific data relative to the health benefits of CLA and its biochemistry volition be detailed subsequently.

The important polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in conventional beef are linoleic acrid (C18:2), blastoff-linolenic acid (C18:3), described as the essential FAs, and the long-concatenation fatty acids including arachidonic acid (C20:4), eicosapentaenoic acrid (C20:5), docosanpetaenoic acid (C22:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6) [38]. The significance of nutrition on fatty acid composition is conspicuously demonstrated when profiles are examined by omega half dozen (n-6) and omega 3 (n-three) families. Tabular array ​ 2 shows no meaning change to the overall concentration of north-6 FAs betwixt feeding regimens, although grass-fed beef consistently shows a college concentrations of n-iii FAs as compared to grain-fed contemporaries, creating a more than favorable n-6:north-3 ratio. There are a number of studies that report positive effects of improved n-3 intake on CVD and other wellness related bug discussed in more detail in the next department.

Table 2

Comparison of hateful polyunsatured fatty acid composition (expressed equally mg/1000 of fatty acid or as a % of total lipid) betwixt grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

Fatty Acrid
Author, publication year, breed, treatment C18:1 t11 Vaccenic Acid C18:2 n-half dozen Linoleic Total CLA C18:3 north-three Linolenic C20:5n-three EPA C22:5n-iii DPA C22:6n-three DHA Full PUFA Total MUFA Full northward-6 Total n-iii n-6/n-3 ratio
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers g/100 g lipid
 Grass 1.35 12.55 5.14* v.53* 2.13* two.56* 0.xx* 28.99* 24.69* 17.97* 10.41* 1.77*
 Grain 0.92 11.95 2.65* 0.48* 0.47* 0.91* 0.11* 19.06* 34.99* 17.08 1.97* eight.99*
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle g/100 g lipid
 Grass 2.95* 2.01 0.85* 0.71* 0.31 0.24* na 3.41 42.five* ii.xxx one.07* two.78*
 Grain 0.51* 2.38 0.48* 0.13* 0.19 0.06* na 2.77 46.2* 2.58 0.19* 13.6*
Garcia, et al., 2008, Angus steers % of total FAs
 Grass iii.22* 3.41 0.72* 1.30* 0.52* 0.seventy* 0.43* vii.95 37.7* five.00* 2.95* 1.72*
 Grain ii.25* 3.93 0.58* 0.74* 0.12* 0.30* 0.14* 9.31 forty.8* 8.05* 0.86* 10.38*
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers mg/100 g muscle tissue
 Grass na 108.8* xiv.3 32.4* 24.5* 36.v* 4.2 na 930* 191.six 97.6* 1.96*
 Grain na 167.iv* sixteen.1 fourteen.9* 13.one* 31.half dozen* 3.7 na 1729* 253.8 63.three* iii.57*
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls % of total fat acids
 Grass na 6.56 0.87* two.22* 0.94* ane.32* 0.17* 14.29* 56.09 9.80 four.70* 2.04*
 Grain na five.22 0.72* 0.46* 0.08* 0.29* 0.05* 9.07* 55.51 7.73 0.xc* eight.34*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crossbred steers % of total FAs
 Grass 4.2* five.4 na i.4* tr 0.half dozen tr 10.31* 34.17* seven.4 ii.0 three.72*
 Grain two.8* 4.7 na 0.seven* tr 0.4 tr 7.29* 37.83* half dozen.3 ane.1 5.73*
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers % fatty acid inside intramuscular fat
 Grass na 3.29* 0.53* one.34* 0.69* 1.04* 0.09 nine.96* xl.96* na na one.44*
 Grain na 2.84* 0.25* 0.35* 0.30* 0.56* 0.09 6.02* 46.36* na na 3.00*

* Indicates a meaning difference (at to the lowest degree P < 0.05) between feeding regimens within each respective study reported. "na" indicates that the value was not reported in the original written report. "tr" indicates trace amounts detected.

Review of Omega-iii: Omega-half dozen fatty acrid content in grass-fed beefiness

In that location are ii essential fat acids (EFAs) in homo diet: α-linolenic acid (αLA), an omega-3 fatty acid; and linoleic acid (LA), an omega-6 fatty acrid. The human being body cannot synthesize essential fat acids, still they are disquisitional to human health; for this reason, EFAs must be obtained from nutrient. Both αLA and LA are polyunsaturated and serve equally precursors of other important compounds. For instance, αLA is the precursor for the omega-iii pathway. Also, LA is the parent fat acrid in the omega-6 pathway. Omega-3 (northward-iii) and omega-6 (n-6) fatty acids are 2 divide distinct families, even so they are synthesized by some of the same enzymes; specifically, delta-v-desaturase and delta-6-desaturase. Excess of 1 family unit of FAs can interfere with the metabolism of the other, reducing its incorporation into tissue lipids and altering their overall biological furnishings [39]. Figure ​ ane depicts a schematic of northward-6 and n-3 metabolism and elongation within the body [forty].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is 1475-2891-9-10-1.jpg

Linoleic (C18:2n-6) and α-Linolenic (C18:3n-3) Acid metabolism and elongation. (Adapted from Simopoulos et al., 1991)

A salubrious diet should consist of roughly ane to four times more omega-6 fatty acids than omega-three fatty acids. The typical American nutrition tends to contain 11 to xxx times more omega -6 fatty acids than omega -3, a miracle that has been hypothesized as a pregnant factor in the ascension rate of inflammatory disorders in the U.s.[40]. Table ​ 2 shows significant differences in n-half-dozen:due north-3 ratios between grass-fed and grain-fed beef, with and overall average of 1.53 and 7.65 for grass-fed and grain-fed, respectively, for all studies reported in this review.

The major types of omega-3 fatty acids used past the body include: α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3, αLA), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3, EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5n-iii, DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3, DHA). Once eaten, the body converts αLA to EPA, DPA and DHA, albeit at depression efficiency. Studies generally hold that whole torso conversion of αLA to DHA is below 5% in humans, the majority of these long-chain FAs are consumed in the diet [41].

The omega-3 fatty acids were first discovered in the early 1970's when Danish physicians observed that Greenland Eskimos had an exceptionally low incidence of heart illness and arthritis despite the fact that they consumed a nutrition loftier in fat. These early studies established fish as a rich source of due north-3 fatty acids. More recent enquiry has established that EPA and DHA play a crucial role in the prevention of atherosclerosis, heart attack, low and cancer [40,42]. In addition, omega-3 consumption reduced the inflammation acquired by rheumatoid arthritis [43,44].

The human brain has a loftier requirement for DHA; low DHA levels take been linked to low brain serotonin levels, which are connected to an increased tendency for depression and suicide. Several studies have established a correlation between low levels of omega -3 fatty acids and depression. High consumption of omega-3 FAs is typically associated with a lower incidence of depression, a decreased prevalence of historic period-related memory loss and a lower risk of developing Alzheimer'southward disease [45-51].

The National Institutes of Health has published recommended daily intakes of FAs; specific recommendations include 650 mg of EPA and DHA, 2.22 g/solar day of αLA and 4.44 g/day of LA. However, the Institute of Medicine has recommended DRI (dietary reference intake) for LA (omega-half dozen) at 12 to 17 g and αLA (omega-3) at i.1 to ane.6 g for developed women and men, respectively. Although seafood is the major dietary source of north-3 fat acids, a recent fat acrid intake survey indicated that crimson meat also serves equally a meaning source of northward-3 fatty acids for some populations [52].

Sinclair and co-workers were the first to bear witness that beefiness consumption increased serum concentrations of a number of north-iii fatty acids including, EPA, DPA and DHA in humans [forty]. Likewise, there are a number of studies that have been conducted with livestock which written report similar findings, i.e., animals that consume rations loftier in precursor lipids produce a meat product higher in the essential fatty acids [53,54]. For instance, cattle fed primarily grass significantly increased the omega-3 content of the meat and also produced a more favorable omega-vi to omega-iii ratio than grain-fed beef [46,55-57].

Table ​ ii shows the effect of ration on polyunsaturated fat acrid limerick from a number of contempo studies that dissimilarity grass-based rations to conventional grain feeding regimens [24-28,30,31]. Grass-based diets resulted in significantly higher levels of omega-three inside the lipid fraction of the meat, while omega-6 levels were left unchanged. In fact, every bit the concentration of grain is increased in the grass-based nutrition, the concentration of n-3 FAs decreases in a linear fashion. Grass-finished beef consistently produces a higher concentration of n-3 FAs (without effecting due north-6 FA content), resulting in a more favorable n-6:n-3 ratio.

The amount of total lipid (fat) found in a serving of meat is highly dependent upon the feeding regimen as demonstrated in Tables ​ i and ​ 2. Fat will as well vary by cut, as not all locations of the carcass will deposit fatty to the same degree. Genetics also play a part in lipid metabolism creating significant breed effects. All the same, the issue of feeding regimen is a very powerful determinant of fatty acrid composition.

Review of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans vaccenic acrid (TVA) in grass-fed beef

Conjugated linoleic acids make up a grouping of polyunsaturated FAs found in meat and milk from ruminant animals and exist every bit a general mixture of conjugated isomers of LA. Of the many isomers identified, the cis-9, trans-11 CLA isomer (likewise referred to as rumenic acid or RA) accounts for up to 80-ninety% of the total CLA in ruminant products [58]. Naturally occurring CLAs originate from two sources: bacterial isomerization and/or biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the rumen and the desaturation of trans-fatty acids in the adipose tissue and mammary gland [59,60].

Microbial biohydrogenation of LA and αLA by an anaerobic rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens is highly dependent on rumen pH [61]. Grain consumption decreases rumen pH, reducing B. fibrisolven action, conversely grass-based diets provide for a more favorable rumen environs for subsequent bacterial synthesis [62]. Rumen pH may assistance to explain the apparent differences in CLA content between grain and grass-finished meat products (see Table ​ ii). De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:1 TVA has been documented in rodents, dairy cows and humans. Studies suggest a linear increase in CLA synthesis every bit the TVA content of the nutrition increased in human subjects [63]. The rate of conversion of TVA to CLA has been estimated to range from five to 12% in rodents to nineteen to 30% in humans[64]. True dietary intake of CLA should therefore consider native ninecxit-C18:2 (actual CLA) besides every bit the 11t-C18:1 (potential CLA) content of foods [65,66]. Effigy ​ 2 portrays de novo synthesis pathways of CLA from TVA [37].

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is 1475-2891-9-10-2.jpg

De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:1 vaccenic acid. (Adapted from Bauman et al., 1999)

Natural augmentation of CLA c9t11 and TVA inside the lipid fraction of beef products can exist accomplished through diets rich in grass and lush green forages. While precursors can be plant in both grains and lush green forages, grass-fed ruminant species have been shown to produce ii to 3 times more CLA than ruminants fed in confinement on high grain diets, largely due to a more favorable rumen pH [34,56,57,67] (see Table ​ 2).

The impact of feeding practices becomes fifty-fifty more evident in light of recent reports from Canada which suggests a shift in the predominate trans C18:1 isomer in grain-fed beef. Dugan et al (2007) reported that the major trans isomer in beef produced from a 73% barley grain diet is 10t-18:ane (ii.13% of total lipid) rather than elevent-18:ane (TVA) (0.77% of total lipid), a finding that is not particularly favorable because the data that would support a negative bear upon of 10t-18:1 on LDL cholesterol and CVD [68,69].

Over the past two decades numerous studies have shown meaning health benefits attributable to the actions of CLA, as demonstrated past experimental animal models, including deportment to reduce carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, and onset of diabetes [lxx-72]. Conjugated linoleic acid has as well been reported to modulate trunk composition by reducing the accumulation of adipose tissue in a variety of species including mice, rats, pigs, and now humans [73-76]. These changes in body composition occur at ultra high doses of CLA, dosages that tin but be attained through synthetic supplementation that may besides produce ill side-effects, such every bit gastrointestinal upset, agin changes to glucose/insulin metabolism and compromised liver role [77-81]. A number of fantabulous reviews on CLA and human health can exist found in the literature [61,82-84].

Optimal dietary intake remains to be established for CLA. It has been hypothesized that 95 mg CLA/day is enough to show positive effects in the reduction of chest cancer in women utilizing epidemiological data linking increased milk consumption with reduced breast cancer[85]. Ha et al. (1989) published a much more than conservative estimate stating that iii thousand/day CLA is required to promote homo wellness benefits[86]. Ritzenthaler et al. (2001) estimated CLA intakes of 620 mg/mean solar day for men and 441 mg/day for women are necessary for cancer prevention[87]. Obviously, all these values represent crude estimates and are mainly based on extrapolated creature information. What is clear is that nosotros as a population do not swallow enough CLA in our diets to have a pregnant impact on cancer prevention or suppression. Reports indicate that Americans consume between 150 to 200 mg/twenty-four hour period, Germans consumer slightly more between 300 to 400 mg/day[87], and the Australians seem to be closer to the optimum concentration at 500 to m mg/day according to Parodi (1994) [88].

Review of pro-Vitamin A/β-carotene in grass-fed meat

Carotenoids are a family of compounds that are synthesized by higher plants every bit natural plant pigments. Xanthophylls, carotene and lycopene are responsible for yellow, orangish and red coloring, respectively. Ruminants on high forage rations pass a portion of the ingested carotenoids into the milk and trunk fatty in a fashion that has yet to exist fully elucidated. Cattle produced nether extensive grass-based production systems generally accept carcass fat which is more yellow than their concentrate-fed counterparts acquired by carotenoids from the lush green forages. Although yellow carcass fat is negatively regarded in many countries around the world, it is also associated with a healthier fat acid profile and a college antioxidant content [89].

Plant species, harvest methods, and flavour, all accept significant impacts on the carotenoid content of fodder. In the process of making silage, haylage or hay, equally much as 80% of the carotenoid content is destroyed [90]. Further, significant seasonal shifts occur in carotenoid content owing to the seasonal nature of found growth.

Carotenes (mainly β-carotene) are precursors of retinol (Vitamin A), a critical fat-soluble vitamin that is important for normal vision, bone growth, reproduction, cell partitioning, and cell differentiation [91]. Specifically, it is responsible for maintaining the surface lining of the eyes and also the lining of the respiratory, urinary, and intestinal tracts. The overall integrity of skin and mucous membranes is maintained by vitamin A, creating a bulwark to bacterial and viral infection [fifteen,92]. In addition, vitamin A is involved in the regulation of immune function by supporting the product and part of white blood cells [12,xiii].

The electric current recommended intake of vitamin A is 3,000 to five,000 IU for men and 2,300 to 4,000 IU for women [93], respectively, which is equivalent to 900 to 1500 μg (micrograms) (Note: DRI equally reported by the Found of Medicine for not-pregnant/not-lactating adult females is 700 μg/solar day and males is 900 μg/day or 2,300 - iii,000 I U (assuming conversion of 3.33 IU/μg). While there is no RDA (Required Daily Allowance) for β-carotene or other pro-vitamin A carotenoids, the Institute of Medicine suggests consuming iii mg of β-carotene daily to maintain plasma β-carotene in the range associated with normal part and a lowered run a risk of chronic diseases (NIH: Role of Dietary Supplements).

The furnishings of grass feeding on beta-carotene content of beefiness was described by Descalzo et al. (2005) who found pasture-fed steers incorporated significantly higher amounts of beta-carotene into muscle tissues every bit compared to grain-fed animals [94]. Concentrations were 0.45 μg/g and 0.06 μg/one thousand for beef from pasture and grain-fed cattle respectively, demonstrating a 7 fold increase in β-carotene levels for grass-fed beefiness over the grain-fed contemporaries. Similar data has been reported previously, presumably due to the high β-carotene content of fresh grasses as compared to cereal grains[38,55,95-97]. (see Table ​ 3)

Table 3

Comparison of mean β-carotene vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

β-carotene
Author, year, animal course Grass-fed (ug/g tissue) Grain-fed (ug/k tissue)
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers 0.74* 0.17*
Descalzo et al., 2005 Crossbred steers 0.45* 0.06*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers 0.xvi* 0.01*

* Indicates a significant departure (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported inside each respective report.

Review of Vitamin East/α-tocopherol in grass-fed beefiness

Vitamin Eastward is likewise a fat-soluble vitamin that exists in viii different isoforms with powerful antioxidant action, the nearly active being α-tocopherol [98]. Numerous studies have shown that cattle finished on pasture produce higher levels of α-tocopherol in the final meat product than cattle fed high concentrate diets[23,28,94,97,99-101] (meet Tabular array ​ 4).

Table four

Comparing of hateful α-tocopherol vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

α-tocopherol
Writer, year, animal class Grass-fed (ug/g tissue) Grain-fed (ug/g tissue)
De la Fuente et al., 2009, Mixed cattle 4.07* 0.75*
Descalzo, et al., 2008, Crossbred steers 3.08* 1.50*
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers two.1* 0.viii*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crosbred steers iv.6* ii.2*
Realini et al., 2004, Hereford steers 3.91* 2.92*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers 4.5* 1.8*

* Indicates a pregnant difference (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported inside each respective study.

Antioxidants such as vitamin E protect cells confronting the furnishings of costless radicals. Free radicals are potentially dissentious by-products of metabolism that may contribute to the development of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Preliminary research shows vitamin E supplementation may help prevent or delay coronary middle affliction [102-105]. Vitamin Due east may also block the formation of nitrosamines, which are carcinogens formed in the stomach from nitrates consumed in the diet. Information technology may also protect against the development of cancers past enhancing immune function [106]. In addition to the cancer fighting effects, there are some observational studies that found lens clarity (a diagnostic tool for cataracts) was better in patients who regularly used vitamin E [107,108]. The current recommended intake of vitamin East is 22 IU (natural source) or 33 IU (synthetic source) for men and women [93,109], respectively, which is equivalent to 15 milligrams by weight.

The concentration of natural α-tocopherol (vitamin E) found in grain-fed beef ranged between 0.75 to 2.92 μg/g of musculus whereas pasture-fed beef ranges from 2.i to 7.73 μg/g of tissue depending on the type of fodder fabricated available to the animals (Tabular array ​ 4). Grass finishing increases α-tocopherol levels three-fold over grain-fed beef and places grass-fed beefiness well within range of the muscle α-tocopherol levels needed to extend the shelf-life of retail beef (3 to 4 μg α-tocopherol/gram tissue) [110]. Vitamin Eastward (α-tocopherol) acts mail service-mortem to delay oxidative deterioration of the meat; a process by which myoglobin is converted into brown metmyoglobin, producing a darkened, brownish appearance to the meat. In a study where grass-fed and grain-fed beefiness were straight compared, the bright red colour associated with oxymyoglobin was retained longer in the retail display in the grass-fed grouping, even idea the grass-fed meat contains a higher concentration of more oxidizable n-iii PUFA. The authors concluded that the antioxidants in grass probably caused college tissue levels of vitamin E in grazed animals with benefits of lower lipid oxidation and better color retentiveness despite the greater potential for lipid oxidation[111].

Review of antioxidant enzyme content in grass-fed beef

Glutathione (GT), is a relatively new protein identified in foods. It is a tripeptide composed of cysteine, glutamic acid and glycine and functions as an antioxidant primarily every bit a component of the enzyme system containing GT oxidase and reductase. Within the jail cell, GT has the capability of quenching complimentary radicals (like hydrogen peroxide), thus protecting the prison cell from oxidized lipids or proteins and prevent damage to Dna. GT and its associated enzymes are establish in virtually all plant and animate being tissue and is readily absorbed in the minor intestine[112].

Although our knowledge of GT content in foods is yet somewhat limited, dairy products, eggs, apples, beans, and rice contain very little GT (< 3.3 mg/100 one thousand). In contrast, fresh vegetables (e.g., asparagus 28.3 mg/100 g) and freshly cooked meats, such every bit ham and beef (23.three mg/100 g and 17.5 mg/100 yard, respectively), are high in GT [113].

Because GT compounds are elevated in lush dark-green forages, grass-fed beef is particularly high in GT every bit compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Descalzo et al. (2007) reported a significant increase in GT molar concentrations in grass-fed beef [114]. In add-on, grass-fed samples were as well higher in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity than beef from grain-fed animals[115]. Superoxide dismutase and catalase are coupled enzymes that work together as powerful antioxidants, SOD scavenges superoxide anions by forming hydrogen peroxide and CAT then decomposes the hydrogen peroxide to HtwoO and Otwo. Grass merely diets amend the oxidative enzyme concentration in beef, protecting the muscle lipids confronting oxidation equally well every bit providing the beef consumer with an additional source of antioxidant compounds.

Issues related to season and palatability of grass-fed beef

Maintaining the more favorable lipid contour in grass-fed beefiness requires a high percentage of lush fresh fodder or grass in the ration. The higher the concentration of fresh green forages, the higher the αLA forerunner that volition be bachelor for CLA and north-three synthesis [53,54]. Fresh pasture forages have x to 12 times more than C18:three than cereal grains [116]. Dried or cured forages, such every bit hay, will accept a slightly lower amount of forerunner for CLA and north-3 synthesis. Shifting diets to cereal grains will crusade a significant change in the FA profile and antioxidant content within thirty days of transition [57].

Because grass-finishing alters the biochemistry of the beefiness, odor and flavor volition also exist affected. These attributes are directly linked to the chemical makeup of the final production. In a study comparing the flavor compounds between cooked grass-fed and grain-fed beef, the grass-fed beefiness contained higher concentrations of diterpenoids, derivatives of chlorophyll call phyt-ane-ene and phyt-2-ene, that changed both the flavor and olfactory property of the cooked production [117]. Others have identified a "light-green" odor from cooked grass-fed meat associated with hexanals derived from oleic and αLA FAs. In contrast to the "green" aroma, grain-fed beef was described as possessing a "soapy" odor, presumably from the octanals formed from LA that is constitute in high concentration in grains [118]. Grass-fed beef consumers can expect a different flavour and aroma to their steaks as they cook on the grill. Too, considering of the lower lipid content and high concentration of PUFAs, cooking time will be reduced. For an exhaustive look at the outcome of meat compounds on season, see Calkins and Hodgen (2007) [119].

With respect to palatability, grass-fed beefiness has historically been less well accepted in markets where grain-fed products predominant. For example, in a study where British lambs fed grass and Spanish lambs fed milk and concentrates were assessed past British and Spanish taste panels, both found the British lamb to accept a college odor and flavour intensity. Yet, the British panel preferred the flavor and overall eating quality of the grass-fed lamb, the Spanish panel much preferred the Castilian fed lamb [120]. Also, the U.S. is well known for producing corn-fed beef, gustation panels and consumers who are more familiar with the sense of taste of corn-fed beefiness seem to prefer it as well [16]. An individual unremarkably comes to adopt the foods they grew up eating, making consumer sensory panels more of an fine art than scientific discipline [36]. Trained taste panels, i.e., persons specifically trained to evaluate sensory characteristics in beef, found grass-fed beefiness less palatable than grain-fed beef in flavor and tenderness [119,121].

Conclusion

Enquiry spanning three decades supports the argument that grass-fed beef (on a g/one thousand fat basis), has a more desirable SFA lipid profile (more C18:0 cholesterol neutral SFA and less C14:0 & C16:0 cholesterol elevating SFAs) every bit compared to grain-fed beef. Grass-finished beef is also college in total CLA (C18:ii) isomers, TVA (C18:i t11) and n-3 FAs on a one thousand/g fatty basis. This results in a better due north-6:northward-3 ratio that is preferred past the nutritional community. Grass-fed beefiness is too higher in precursors for Vitamin A and E and cancer fighting antioxidants such as GT and SOD activity as compared to grain-fed contemporaries.

Grass-fed beefiness tends to be lower in overall fat content, an important consideration for those consumers interested in decreasing overall fat consumption. Because of these differences in FA content, grass-fed beef also possesses a distinct grass flavour and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beefiness. To maximize the favorable lipid contour and to guarantee the elevated antioxidant content, animals should be finished on 100% grass or pasture-based diets.

Grain-fed beef consumers may attain similar intakes of both n-3 and CLA through consumption of college fat portions with college overall palatability scores. A number of clinical studies have shown that today'south lean beef, regardless of feeding strategy, tin be used interchangeably with fish or skinless chicken to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic patients.

Abbreviations

c: cis; t: trans; FA: fatty acid; SFA: saturated fatty acid; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acid; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acid; CLA: conjugated linoleic acid; TVA: trans-vaccenic acrid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; DPA: docosapentaenoic acid; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; GT: glutathione; SOD: superoxide dismutase; CAT: catalase.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

CAD was responsible for the literature review, completed virtually of the main writing, created the manuscript and worked through the submission process; AA conducted the literature search, organized the articles co-ordinate to category, completed some of the chief writing and served as editor; SPD conducted a portion of the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript; GAN conducted a portion of the literature review and served equally editor for the manuscript; SL conducted a portion o the literature review and served equally editor for the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors would similar to acknowledge Grace Berryhill for her aid with the figures, tables and editorial contributions to this manuscript.

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2846864/

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